By Zazie Todd, PhD
Whether yous desire to withdraw component inward obedience classes or adapt individual sessions to resolve your dog’s behaviour problem, choosing the right domestic dog trainer tin live a hard decision.
Because domestic dog preparation is unlicensed, anyone tin telephone phone themselves a domestic dog trainer, regardless of whether or non they have got whatever education.
So what should yous expression for? This article explains the telephone commutation things yous demand to know earlier yous hire a domestic dog trainer.
The most of import alternative inward hiring a domestic dog trainer
When choosing a domestic dog trainer, the most of import thing is to discovery a trainer who uses reward-based domestic dog preparation methods, which they mightiness telephone phone positive reinforcement, force-free, or humane preparation methods.
However, just because yous regard those words on someone’s website, does non hateful they genuinely operate those methods (see below for the questions yous should ask).
Reward-based domestic dog preparation is based on either giving a vantage (to create a behaviour to a greater extent than probable to move on again) or withholding a vantage (to create the behaviour less probable to occur).
Technically speaking, using rewards to create a behaviour growth inward frequency is called positive reinforcement. That’s why some domestic dog trainers telephone phone themselves positive reinforcement domestic dog trainers.
Others telephone phone themselves force-free or humane domestic dog trainers, to distinguish themselves from people who operate aversive techniques such every bit electrical shock, prong collars, leash ‘corrections’, ‘alpha rolls’ or the like.
In practice, the vantage that works best is food. It is possible to operate other types of reward, such every bit play, but nutrient is to a greater extent than efficient because it’s faster to deliver; it’s improve for most domestic dog preparation scenarios (for example, if you’re teaching a dog to sit-stay, play volition encourage your domestic dog to saltation out of the sit); as well as all dogs honey food.
So inward other words, yous desire a domestic dog trainer who volition use nutrient to prepare your dog.
That’s because at that spot are risks to using aversive methods (technically, positive punishment as well as negative reinforcement). Those risks include making the domestic dog aggressive or fearful, as well as these are serious problems that tin withdraw a long fourth dimension to gear upwards (if at all).
If yous desire to know more, banking concern check out my article seven reasons to operate reward-based domestic dog training.
Or if yous desire to know to a greater extent than most the scientific research, banking concern check out my dog preparation scientific discipline resources page which lists articles on domestic dog preparation methods (and places where yous tin read most those articles for free).
If you're inward British Columbia, Canada, yous tin expression for an AnimalKind certified domestic dog trainer. AnimalKind is an brute welfare accreditation from the BC SPCA as well as certified trainers operate reward-based methods.
If your domestic dog is on a special diet, don’t worry. There is e'er something tasty that fits alongside a special diet as well as that volition motivate your dog. Once you’ve industrial plant life a goodness domestic dog trainer, tell them most your dog’s dietary needs.
So, directly yous know yous demand to discovery a reward-based domestic dog trainer, what next?
What qualifications should yous expression for inward a domestic dog trainer?
Remember I said at the kickoff that anyone tin telephone phone themselves a domestic dog trainer. But domestic dog preparation is genuinely a skilled activity, as well as it also requires knowledge. Just to cry a few things, domestic dog trainers demand goodness timing, to live able to read a dog’s trunk language, to sympathise learning theory (that’s component of the technical information), as well as to have got goodness people skills therefore they tin explicate it all to domestic dog owners inward a way they tin understand.
So it’s non plenty if someone has e'er loved dogs, or grown upwards alongside them. In fact that component doesn’t matter. You demand to discovery a domestic dog trainer who is qualified.
The best qualifications to expression for include CTC, KPA CTP, VSA-CDT, VSPDT, as well as PMCT (those are the letters that volition appear after your domestic dog trainer’s name). Increasingly, domestic dog trainers may have got a relevant undergraduate or graduate score e.g. inward brute behaviour.
Don’t just withdraw my give-and-take for it. In a 2019 article for veterinarians most what to expression for inward a domestic dog trainer, veterinary behaviourist Dr. Lisa Radosta recommends checking the certifications of trainers as well as lists mutual options including many of those higher upwards every bit good every bit CCPDT, PPG as well as IAABC (see afterward for professional person memberships).
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| Photo: rebeccaashworth; top, Mila Atkovska (both Shutterstock.com) |
The CTC is an advanced, two-year computer program from the Academy for Dog Trainers, which covers both domestic dog preparation as well as behaviour. The Academy is known every bit “the Harvard of Dog Training” as well as is run past times world-renowned domestic dog trainer Jean Donaldson. You tin find an Academy domestic dog trainer here.
KPA CTP agency that someone has taken the Karen Pryor Academy Dog Trainer Professional program. This is a six-month computer program as well as yous tin find graduates here.
VSA-CDT agency that someone has graduated from the Victoria Stilwell Academy Dog Training program. This is a six-month computer program as well as yous tin find graduates here.
VSPDT agency that someone is a licensed Victoria Stilwell Positively Dog Trainer. To live accepted, trainers must have got an teaching as well as at to the lowest degree 2 years experience, as well as live admitted through the process.
PMCT agency that someone has taken the Pat Miller Certified Trainer course of instruction through Peaceable Paws. You tin discovery a listing of Pat Miller certified trainers, Peaceable Paws affiliates, as well as Academy graduates via the Peaceable Paws website (look nether trainer referrals).
If you’ve industrial plant life multiple domestic dog trainers alongside these qualifications inward your area, you’ve got several to pick out from as well as tin motility on to the side past times side department of this article.
If yous haven’t, therefore yous tin expression for people who have got CPDT-KA, CPDT-KSA, or CBCC-KA (all assessed past times the Certification Council for Professional Dog Trainers) or the PCT-A or PCBC-A (assessed past times the Pet Professional Accreditation Board). Again, these are people who have got had their noesis of domestic dog preparation assessed.
These are non the exclusively domestic dog preparation certifications. It’s genuinely quite a confusing province of affairs for consumers, which is why I’ve chosen to focus on the primary credentials. There are other kinds of credentials yous mightiness expression for if your domestic dog has serious behavioural problems, as well as I’ll acquire to those afterward inward the article.
Membership of a professional person domestic dog preparation organization
Another thing to expression for inward a domestic dog trainer is membership of a professional person organization.
There are several organizations that a domestic dog trainer mightiness live a fellow member of. One is the Pet Professional Guild, which is committed to forcefulness gratis domestic dog training. Members of this arrangement volition exclusively operate reward-based preparation methods.
Another arrangement is the Association of Professional Dog Trainers. Note that this arrangement follows an approach called LIMA, which stands for ‘least invasive, minimally aversive’ which (as yous tin tell from the name) allows for the operate of aversives inward some cases, therefore quiz the trainer on the methods they volition use. They say that "we allow trainers alongside all methodologies to bring together alongside the goal of exposing them to humane, science-based preparation methods. However, this does non hateful that all trainers inward our directory subscribe to this philosophy..." therefore yous demand to discovery out for yourself which methods they genuinely use.
By the way, APDTs inward other countries are independent, have got their ain fellow member assessments as well as follow their ain guidelines; for illustration the APDT(UK) exclusively allows its members to operate non-compulsive methods.
The International Association of Animal Behaviour Consultants (IAABC) is an arrangement for brute behaviour consultants, many of whom also offering domestic dog preparation classes. Like APDT, they follow LIMA.
If a domestic dog trainer says that they are a fellow member of a detail organization, recollect that yous don’t have got to withdraw their give-and-take for it. You should live able to expression them upwards via that organization’s directory to verify their membership.
What most continuing teaching for domestic dog trainers?
Like whatever other profession, domestic dog trainers ought to rest up-to-date on developments inward their field.
Again, since domestic dog preparation is non regulated, there’s no requirement for them to move on to learn. However, professional person organizations create have got continuing teaching requirements for their members.
If yous are considering a domestic dog trainer, banking concern check to regard what continuing teaching they have got listed on their website.
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If they are a create novel domestic dog trainer, they may non yet have got had fourth dimension to consummate much continuing teaching (but create surely they have got some education, every bit already mentioned). Over time, the listing of continuing teaching courses should acquire longer.
Some of this preparation may withdraw identify at annual conferences, such every bit those of the organizations listed above. Some of it may live online, via webinars or other distance learning opportunities. Some domestic dog trainers volition fifty-fifty live giving talks as well as seminars at domestic dog preparation conferences themselves.
There are surely names that are a really goodness sign. For example, if someone has attended preparation alongside the likes of Jean Donaldson, Karen Pryor, Kathy Sdao, Chirag Patel, Ken Ramirez, Pat Miller, Ian Dunbar, or Bob Bailey, that’s really promising, because these are all of import names inward science-based domestic dog training.
There are also some additional certifications available to domestic dog trainers who are interested inward them. These include Fear Free certification (for trainers interested inward making vet visits less stressful for their clients; mayhap your veterinary is also Fear Free certified?); Certified Separation Anxiety Trainers certified past times Malena deMartini (for domestic dog trainers specializing inward separation anxiety); courses from the Karen Pryor Academy such every bit DogSports Essentials or Canine Freestyle; as well as courses for advanced professionals (webinars on demand) from the Academy for Dog Trainers.
What methods volition they genuinely operate to prepare your dog?
At the start of this article, I mentioned that some domestic dog trainers may say they operate positive reinforcement but non genuinely operate it when working alongside your pet.
One argue for this is that they know at that spot is demand for positive reinforcement and, well, domestic dog preparation isn’t regulated.
One clue that they mightiness non exclusively operate reward-based preparation is if they refer to themselves every bit ‘balanced’. Usually, balanced is used to hateful that they also operate penalization or ‘corrections’. And unfortunately, that agency balanced domestic dog preparation is non a goodness thing.
Another clue is if the domestic dog trainer refers to ‘cookie pushers’ inward a derogatory way or says that they prepare without food. Remember, yous are looking to discovery a domestic dog trainer who will operate nutrient to prepare your dog. If they say they don’t operate food, cross them direct off your list.
And yet some other clue is if yous are reading through client testimonials as well as they move on to refer to a stupor collar. Or if the trainer has an online shop, as well as that’s what they sell. There is no scientific evidence to back upwards the operate of stupor collars, as well as they are non to a greater extent than effective than reward-based preparation (see hither for results of testing stupor collars vs rewards for preparation dogs to come upwards when called).
If they cry dominance or beingness the alpha or pack leader, this tells yous they are using out-dated methods too. For to a greater extent than information, regard the read my interview alongside Jean Donaldson. (The interview celebrates 20 years since publication of Donaldson's influential book, Culture Clash
, which should live on your reading listing if it is non already).Customer testimonials as well as social media
When yous think you’ve identified a goodness domestic dog trainer, read the client testimonials as well as expression at their social media accounts just to double-check that yous are happy alongside your choice.
Hopefully they volition have got lots of positive comments from clients.
Many domestic dog trainers also have got social media accounts such every bit Facebook, Twitter or Instagram where they part interesting articles as well as photos of their client’s dogs.
If yous hire them as well as yous are agreeable, they may fifty-fifty part photos of your domestic dog looking happy inward a preparation session. (If yous don’t desire them to, that’s fine, just allow them know; they should inquire anyway).
Some domestic dog trainers fifty-fifty have got blogs that yous tin follow for useful pieces of advice as well as to hold upwards to engagement on their activities.
As above, if yous regard whatever signs hither that a trainer uses stupor collars, prong collars, pins dogs to the floor, refers to potency or alpha rolls, or other kinds of aversive method, discovery some other trainer.
What if I can’t discovery a goodness domestic dog trainer inward my town?
Some people are lucky as well as volition have got many goodness domestic dog trainers to pick out from. Other people mightiness live unlucky, as well as combat to discovery a domestic dog trainer they are happy with.
In these cases, yous could regard if at that spot is a suitable domestic dog trainer inward a nearby town. They volition in all probability accuse mileage to come upwards out to you, but sometimes it’s worth it to piece of work alongside the right person.
Another alternative is an meshing consultation. These days, an increasing number of domestic dog trainers are willing to offering consultations via Skype, Zoom, or telephone. This gives yous a much wider alternative of people to piece of work with, as well as sometimes volition live the best option. (Obviously, this exclusively works for individual consultations, as well as non for classes).
What most online domestic dog preparation courses?
If yous don't demand a score as well as only desire to acquire to a greater extent than most domestic dog training, yous mightiness discovery an online course of instruction helpful. Dog Training 101 from The Great Courses is taught past times Jean Donaldson as well as includes 24 video lectures as well as a course of instruction guidebook.
interview alongside Lori Nanan to discovery a discount code for readers).
Choosing betwixt classes as well as individual domestic dog preparation lessons?
Maybe yous already know the response to the query of whether yous would similar to attend domestic dog preparation classes or have got individual lessons, but at that spot are several things to consider.
If yous have got a puppy, therefore puppy score is normally the best option. Some trainers offering one-off puppy parties, but inward the exclusively study that looked at this, they industrial plant life that a six-week puppy score offers improve results inward the long run. So if yous desire to move to puppy parties, it's in all probability improve to sign upwards for several, to acquire to a greater extent than socialization as well as play alongside other puppies.
H5N1 puppy score must live precisely what it says – for puppies only, no adult dogs.
Puppy class volition include socialization every bit good every bit basic obedience exercises. Your puppy should have got some opportunities to play alongside the other puppies, as well as a goodness score volition dissever the shy puppies from the boisterous ones therefore that no i becomes overwhelmed. Unfortunately, many puppies lady friend out on puppy class and also on socialization opportunities. If yous have got a puppy, regard what to expression for inward a puppy class.
Some domestic dog trainers offering individual sessions for puppies. These tin live a goodness choice, but because socialization is therefore of import for puppies, yous demand to ensure either that the trainer volition include socialization every bit component of the package, or to create surely to create it yourself. H5N1 goodness trainer volition explicate this to you.
Classes for adult dogs normally comprehend basic obedience as well as tin move on through to to a greater extent than advanced levels, including Canine Good Citizen certification.
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Some domestic dog trainers also offering classes for reactive dogs; if yous have got a reactive domestic dog as well as are tempted past times this, banking concern check that the score is small, as well as that your domestic dog volition non live ‘over threshold’ during score (in other words, discovery it besides hard due to other dogs beingness besides closed by). These classes tin piece of work well, but some reactive dogs volition demand individual sessions instead.
Many people savour the social atmosphere of classes, as well as the chance to run across other dogs as well as their owners. Make surely yous are happy alongside the size of the class, because modest classes are mostly better. Classes volition normally have got at to the lowest degree i assistant to assist the trainer as well as mayhap more, depending on score size.
Classes are also available for a whole make of fun activities including agility, tricks, olfactory organ work, Treibball, flyball. etc. There may live opportunities to sweat these out alongside your domestic dog or to discovery them earlier signing upwards for a whole laid of classes. Some people savour these activities therefore much they move on to compete or to acquire a domestic dog trainer themselves.
Private preparation involves the domestic dog trainer coming to your household for a lesson. In some cases, they may have got an component that yous move to instead or adapt to run across yous inward a populace location such every bit a park.
Private lessons are best for behaviour problems, because the trainer comes to yous as well as sees the domestic dog inward his or her common environment. They volition develop a programme for your dog, as well as volition create some preparation whilst at your household as well as motorbus yous inward how to bargain alongside the problem. In betwixt times, expression to live given some homework.
With individual training, yous have got fourth dimension that is dedicated to yous as well as your domestic dog instead of having to part the trainer alongside others similar inward a class. Many trainers volition also provide back upwards past times electronic mail or telephone inward betwixt sessions, as well as they volition tell yous what to expect.
If yous attend a score but it turns out your domestic dog has behaviour problems that are beyond the reach of the class, don’t live surprised if your trainer suggests individual sessions instead (or every bit well). That’s because they tin piece of work alongside yous to a greater extent than easily to resolve the problems that way.
If your domestic dog has a behaviour problem, it’s mostly improve to sweat as well as create something to resolve the issues early on, instead of waiting for the occupation to acquire worse earlier yous essay help. This is particularly of import if yous think your domestic dog mightiness seize alongside teeth someone (or indeed if your domestic dog has already bitten someone). In these cases, create surely to inquire how yous tin hold everyone rubber until the appointment. (For serious behaviour issues regard below, what if my domestic dog has a behaviour problem?).
What most board as well as train?
Another alternative is board as well as train, where your domestic dog goes to rest alongside the domestic dog trainer for a menstruation of time, normally several weeks, as well as is trained spell there. This tin piece of work good for some issues, such every bit house-training, but non therefore good for other issues.
This may also live useful if yous are planning to move away as well as demand somewhere to board your dog, as well as would similar your domestic dog to acquire some preparation every bit well.
Even though the trainer volition live doing most of the training, yous should nonetheless expression to have got to create some piece of work yourself; the trainer should hold inward touching alongside yous most your dog’s progress, as well as volition schedule at to the lowest degree i session to ‘transfer’ the training.
After all, fifty-fifty if your pooch has learned lots of novel commands, they won’t live much operate if yous don’t know what they are; as well as if yous aren’t prepared to hold practising them, your domestic dog may forget them.
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With board as well as train, yous demand to withdraw fifty-fifty to a greater extent than attention to select your domestic dog trainer carefully as well as banking concern check references. Because they volition live preparation the domestic dog away from you, yous won’t live able to regard the preparation they create – therefore yous demand to live surely they genuinely volition live using nutrient to prepare your dog, as well as non an aversive method such every bit a stupor collar.
Vaccinations as well as Cleanliness
Expect to live asked to convey vaccination certificates to your maiden off class. Adult dogs should have got DHPP (distemper – parvo) as well as rabies vaccinations.
For puppies, the guidance from the American Veterinary Society for Animal Behaviour is that,
“In general, puppies tin start puppy socialization classes every bit early every bit 7-8 weeks of age. Puppies should have a minimum of i laid of vaccines at to the lowest degree 7 days prior to the maiden off score as well as a maiden off deworming. They should live kept up-to-date on vaccines throughout the class”
Read their total Supportive coaching skills are of import to create confidence as well as assist people regard how effective positive reinforcement preparation tin be.
Like I said above, domestic dog preparation is genuinely quite a skilled action as well as it doesn’t come upwards naturally to everyone. So discovery a domestic dog trainer who volition live encouraging. Classes should live fun for yous as well as your dog.
I listen stories of people who move to a domestic dog trainer exclusively to experience disheartened, discouraged as well as upset because the trainer told them their dog’s problems were due to them non beingness the alpha or non providing leadership. Don’t sign upwards alongside such a trainer. They are using out-dated potency methods. And they are also showing they are non a goodness instructor (and sometimes beingness downright rude every bit well).
Courtesy works both ways. If your domestic dog trainer asks yous non to feed your domestic dog earlier class, to convey treats to class, or to create some homework, create your best to comply. You volition acquire to a greater extent than out of the preparation that way.
And if yous discovery a domestic dog trainer yous like, yous tin e'er acquire out them a positive review. Your recommendation volition assist others inward their search to discovery a goodness domestic dog trainer.
What if my domestic dog has a behaviour problem?
If your domestic dog has a behaviour problem, yous nonetheless desire to discovery someone who volition operate reward-based methods. For to a greater extent than information, regard the fear or separation anxiety.
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As mentioned above, create surely to banking concern check your domestic dog trainer has qualifications.
Dog trainers alongside the CTC from the Academy for Dog Trainers have got studied behaviour modification every bit component of their course.
Animal behaviour consultants are certified past times the International Association of Animal Behaviour Consultants. Certified members have got a minimum of 500 hours experience inward behaviour consulting as well as at to the lowest degree 400 hours of coursework inward required areas, as well as must furnish instance studies as well as references (at the Associate Certified level, it is 300 hours of experience as well as 150 hours of coursework). IAABC follows LIMA. Members tin live industrial plant life via their online directory which is organized past times species (dogs, cats, horses as well as parrots).
Certified applied brute behaviourists (CAABs) are certified past times the Animal Behaviour Society. CAABs must have got a doctoral score inward a relevant field, every bit good every bit experience of working alongside a detail species, as well as references. Associate Certified Applied Animal Behaviourists may have got a Master’s degree. They tin live industrial plant life via the CAAB directory. Some CAABs are also veterinarians.
Veterinary behaviourists have got a vet score plus at to the lowest degree iii years of farther preparation inward brute behaviour. As well, they must have got published a enquiry report, provide instance studies as well as withdraw a 2 twenty-four hr menstruation examination. The variety of problems they care for include aggression towards people as well as other animals as well as anxiety. The American College of Veterinary Behaviourists has a listing of board-certified veterinary behaviourists.
Some of these professionals are willing to withdraw distant clients via Skype/telephone.
Why has my domestic dog trainer asked me to regard the vet first?
For some problems, your domestic dog trainer volition inquire yous to regard your veterinary first, to dominion out whatever medical weather condition that mightiness live affecting your dog’s behaviour.
H5N1 typical illustration is for house-training issues. If a domestic dog that was already house-trained all of a abrupt starts to create a mess inward the house, they demand to regard a vet inward instance it is caused past times a medical issue. H5N1 urinary tract infection tin drive dogs to have got accidents inward the house, for example, as well as no amount of preparation volition withdraw the identify of antibiotics if they are needed. It’s exclusively if your vet rules out medical issues that it would live appropriate to piece of work alongside a domestic dog trainer.
Any abrupt changes inward behaviour would also demand a vet visit, because for illustration they could live a sign that your domestic dog is inward pain.
In some cases of fright as well as anxiety, your domestic dog trainer mightiness inquire yous to regard your veterinary inward instance they desire to suggest medication. Dog trainers as well as pet behaviour counsellors are non able to prescribe medication (or fifty-fifty to recommend it), as well as therefore at that spot are times when they volition suggest yous inquire for an sentiment from your veterinarian.
Only veterinarians tin determine if your domestic dog needs medication.
If, after seeing your vet, it’s decided that yous create demand to piece of work alongside a domestic dog trainer or behaviour counsellor, they volition live willing to coordinate alongside your vet every bit necessary. For example, if your vet prescribes medication, this may have got an consequence on whatever preparation (e.g. if preparation should live delayed to allow the medication fourth dimension to withdraw effect, or if it should proceed at the same time). Your veterinary volition advise.
Prices as well as Packages
Dog preparation classes are normally sold inward a package, typically a laid of vi classes starting on a detail date.
For individual domestic dog training, most domestic dog trainers volition accuse to a greater extent than for the maiden off consultation. That’s because they are coming together alongside yous to discovery out what the occupation behaviour is as well as volition devise a programme to resolve it. After the session, they volition ship yous a written report outlining the occupation as well as what they advise should live done.
Future sessions, which involve carrying out that plan, typically cost less. Many trainers offering a packet that includes the maiden off session as well as therefore a laid of follow-up sessions. This is normally cheaper than booking each session separately.
Although some domestic dog trainers listing their cost on their website, others create not. Don’t live afraid to contact them as well as discovery out how much they charge.
Remember that, since yous are choosing your domestic dog trainer wisely, they have got taken the fourth dimension to educate themselves, gain experience, bring together a professional person arrangement as well as rest up-to-date. You are paying for their expertise as well as therefore their rates should live laid accordingly.
Having said that, since domestic dog preparation is an unlicensed profession, some people accuse a lot of coin despite having no education. That’s why this article hopes to assist yous pick out an first-class domestic dog trainer.
Insurance
Your domestic dog trainer should have got insurance, as well as this information is normally included on their spider web page, but if inward doubt, ask.
What if it all goes wrong?
Some people have got the unfortunate experience of signing upwards alongside a domestic dog trainer who they think volition operate positive reinforcement, as well as therefore when they plough upwards to score or the trainer is at their house, they discovery out that genuinely the domestic dog trainer is recommending aversive techniques such every bit a stupor or prong collar.
This post is designed to assist yous avoid that experience.
However, if it happens to you, recollect that yous are your dog’s advocate. Don’t allow someone else care for your domestic dog inward a way that yous are non happy with. It may experience hard or socially awkward to discovery yourself inward this situation, but explicate that this is non what yous desire for your dog.
Then discovery some other trainer.
And finally…
If you’ve made it to the goal of this article, you’re acre a dedicated domestic dog owner. I promise yous tin operate this information to discovery a goodness domestic dog trainer nigh you.
Remember, to pick out a goodness domestic dog trainer, expression for:
- a domestic dog trainer who volition operate nutrient to prepare your dog;
- who has an educational qualification inward domestic dog training;
- who is a fellow member of a professional person body;
- and takes component inward ongoing continuing education.
If yous regard whatever of the alert signs I mentioned, hold on looking. The right domestic dog trainer is out there, as well as your domestic dog deserves nada less.
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Zazie Todd, PhD, is the writer of Wag: The Science of Making Your Dog Happy
. She is the founder of the pop weblog , where she writes most everything from preparation methods to the human-canine relationship. She also writes a column for Psychology Today as well as has received the prestigious Captain Haggerty Award for Best Training Article inward 2017. Todd lives inward Maple Ridge, BC, alongside her husband, i dog, as well as 2 cats.Useful links:
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This post was lastly updated inward August 2019.
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